Diagnosing and Treating Iron Deficiency Anemia Essay

Anemia is a condition in which your blood does not have enough healthy red blood cells. These cells play an important role because are the main carriers of oxygen to your organs. They take up oxygen from the lungs and release carbon dioxide back to the lungs. Without the red blood cells, you body wouldn’t get any oxygen or carbon dioxide and your body would slowly die. Anemia can be mild or severe. It can be so mild, that people go a long time without even know they have it. They’ll start to realize it the worse it gets. There are over 400 types of anemia, here are some. Sickle cell anemia is when your red blood cells break down fast, so your organs don’t receive oxygen; it mainly affects African-Americans. Pernicious anemia is when your†¦show more content†¦Some of them include: weakness, pale skin, dizziness or lightheadedness, extreme fatigue, cold feet and hands, unusual cravings for non-nutritive substances; such as ice or dirt, or restless legs syn drome; which is an uncomfortable tingling or crawling feeling in your legs. Two of the main reasons one might get this illness is if you don’t have enough in-take of iron and if you loose a large amount of blood. If you are not taking enough iron rich foods, it can affect your health and make you prone to have iron deficiency anemia. Also, if you notice that you are loosing an abnormal amount of blood because of menstruation or pregnancy you should consult your doctor. This is something that can lead to something serious, most likely anemia. Other reasons one might get it is because of frequent blood donation and digestive conditions. I know first hand what its like to have iron deficiency anemia. I have had it for almost four years and I know what its like to not even know when you have it. I was diagnosed with anemia when I fainted in a movie theater after loosing a very large amount of blood from my menstrual cycle. I knew it wasn’t normal, but I was not aware of ho w serious it actually was . I began to have symptoms a few hours before going to the movies, but I did not pay much attention to it. After the incident in the theaters, I was rushed to the hospital and that is when they diagnosed me with iron-deficiency anemia. I had almost all ofShow MoreRelatedThe Relationship Between Anemia and Nutritional Issues Essay3613 Words   |  15 PagesThe Relationship Between Anemia and Nutritional Issues INTRODUCTION Anemia can be defined as a decrease in the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood caused by low hemoglobin concentration (A Practical Guide, 1). Cells in the body require oxygen to fully utilize fuels. The oxygen is transported from the lungs to tissues throughout the body via red blood cells. Oxygen binds to hemoglobin, a specific molecule within each red blood cell. This molecule consists of heme, which isRead MoreAnemia Is Common Among Individuals With Human Immunodeficiency Virus2062 Words   |  9 PagesAnemia is common among individuals with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection [1]. In sub-Saharan Africa, the prevalence of anemia is high people living with HIV are likely to be malnourished, have low CD4 counts and have high rates of comorbidities such as tuberculosis and malaria [2, 3] The presence of anemia predicts poor clinical outcomes like death, clinical progression to AIDS, morbidity and a poor quality of life during the course of the HIV infection whether th e person is on ART orRead MoreThe History, Use, and Effectiveness of Medicinal Drugs4647 Words   |  19 Pagesand Nutrient Supplements VII. Future Prospects and Trends in Pharmacology (Pgs 32-42) VIII. Recipe (Pgs 43-44) Endnotes (Pgs 45-46) Bibliography (Pgs 47-48) The science and ambidexterity of treating, diagnosing, and preventing disease is known as the field of Medicine. In ancient times Medicine was a vague field, mostly incorporated with magic and superstition, it was not like our modern medical system of scientific analysis.  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Based on responses to chapter speciï ¬ c pre-tests, the plans suggest a course of study for students, xx ââ€"   Preface including many multimedia and interactive exercises

Enron Case Study Summary - 976 Words

Enron Case Study The case of Enron is a fascinating one. United States is a country where auditing and accounting principles are so strong. How can something take place on such high level in the United States? The Enron case demonstrates the need to reform the accounting and corporate governance practices in the United States. Moreover, the Enron case made government officials to pay close attention to deregulated energy market. Some of the aspects that struck me are discussed below. One of the aspects that struck me was the vision of the top management. Enron was in the business of energy, but Kenneth Lay built management team of MBAs, not individuals specialized in gas and energy field. My view is that top management has to have a†¦show more content†¦The whole corporate culture was somewhat corrupted. The aspect that jumped out from the case was the relentless pursuit of profits. Yes, the main goal of any business is to make profit, but social values should be kept in mind. I believe that the compensation system at Enron was also to blame. People involved in the scandal were making huge sum of money. The intriguing aspect in this case was how Fastow was able to create special purpose entities (SPE). Fastow was creating these SPEs to segregate financial activities from Enron’s balance sheet. The SPEs provided Enron a way to move debt from the balance sheet so the credit rating could remain high. The commodities swapping mechanism required high credit rating. The SPEs allowed Enron to disguise debt and loss as revenue. Enron deceived investor and creditors. Furthermore, Enron invested in other companies. Once the investments began to show losses, they were transferred to SPEs. This method allowed the sale of investment to SPEs. Hence, the sale of investment was shown as gain to Enron. Another interesting fact was that analysts didn’t raise red any flags. I am sure that many analysts recommended the buying of Enron stocks. This scandal made investors and analysts more cautious. Analysts and investors began to ask questions: 1) how does company make money? 2) Can company sustain strategy over the long term? Basically, the laws got strict and analysts were more observant. These are some of the aspects thatShow MoreRelatedEnron‚Äà ´s Demise ~ Where There Warning Signs?1408 Words   |  6 PagesCase Study Analysis ~ Enron’s Demise ~ Where There Warning Signs? Janise Baldwin Management Decision Making-Summer 2013 C. Forest Guest July 14, 2013 Executive Summary Enron is a company which headquarters is located in Houston, Texas. Enron was first headed by Samuel F. Segnar. Enron was the result of InterNorth’s acquisition of Houston Natural Gas in 1985. Under the new terms of this acquisition, the company was headed by Kenneth Lay on the first day of 1997. Enron offered employment forRead MoreThe Ethics Of The Enron Case1407 Words   |  6 PagesThe Enron case is a very popular case to show how the profession of accounting is vital to make the corporate world of business flow reliably. Enron was recognized as one of the world’s major electricity, natural gas, communications and pulp and paper’s company. However Enron was found to record assets and profits at inflated, fraudulent and non-existent amounts. Debts and losses were found to be excluded from financial statements along with other major transactions between Enron and other companiesRead MoreEssay enrons case956 Words   |  4 Pages(316) Lecturer: Mr. Montaser Tawalbeh Case Study Enron: Were They the Crookedest Guys in the Room? Case Summary Enron has become the classic case on business ethics. Enron formed after the merger of Internorth Incorporated and Houston Natural Gas in 1985. On January 1, 1987, as part of the merger agreement, Ken Lay became the new CEO. In 1990, Ken Lay hired Jeffrey Skilling from McKinsey and Company as the Head of Enron Finance. By 1995, Enron had become the largest independent naturalRead MoreThe Case Summaries For Phar Mor Inc. Fraud Essay1302 Words   |  6 PagesThe Case Summaries for Phar-Mor Inc. Fraud, Waste Management Scandal, Enron Scandal and Answers Phar-Mor Inc. Fraud Summary Phar-Mor Inc. fell prey to greed from the top. Unfortunately, the auditing firm assisted the organization with the conspiracy to defraud the users of financial reporting, the government, and the stakeholders. The chief officers used the funds for personal usage and appropriated funds to functions that were not related to the organization business. The financial statementsRead MoreEnron Case Study4789 Words   |  20 PagesEXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report will analyse the groupthink’s concerns in the collapse of Enron. The collapse of Enron is less than three months, which Enron from a very prosperous company to a bankrupt enterprise. 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The evidence that agree with this statement would be audit has emerged as powerful key to ensure the accountability andRead MoreThe Enron Of Enrons Bankruptcy1859 Words   |  8 Pagescommunications has been one of the most serious cases of unethical practices in the American economy. The company directors in association with their accountants and lawyers created subsidiaries in order to generated false earnings, avoid taxes, inflated assets and hide losses. Finally in 2001 the company lost the credibility in the market and the scandal was exposed affecting thousands of employees and investors. 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Education in Vietnam-Free-Samples for Students-Myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Education in Vietnam. Answer: Education in Vietnam comprises of state-run system in relation to the public and private education that is run by Ministry of Education and Training. Vietnam is known on account of having a rigorous curriculum that is held to be competitive for the students. Secondary education is another highlighted social issue of the country. Higher education is another important arena in relation to the Vietnamese society. The main goal of the education system of Vietnam is to improve the general knowledge of the people and foster talent (Hayden and Thiep 2015). In Vietnam, there are primarily two broad divisions in relation to the educational system of Vietnam- traditional mono-disciplinary and multidisciplinary university. The first group focuses on a single subject and it has been found in the recent age that the education system is veering towards the multi-disciplinary format. According to the Higher Education Reform Agenda, the education environment is changing and it is seen that there is a spurt in the number in relation to the public along with private higher education institution. Developing the faculty is another important arena that poses a great challenge in regard to the higher education of Vietnam. The higher education system is lagging behind both from the perspective of quality along with that of quantity. It is found that the ratio of the lecturers in relation to the students is around 1/30 that is very high (Ziguras and Pham 2016). Number of holders of the PhD degree is quite low. This arena of higher education should be p roperly paid attention in order to bring about the development of Vietnam. A plan is being made to attract the Vietnamese overseas professor so that they come back to the place in order to teach but till far the reality has been of great disappointing in this field. The government is not making use of the overseas resources and apt utilisation of these resources would have paved the path for the growth of Vietnam (Tran et al., 2016).Vietnam possesses a two step process in order to qualify for the university. The students should pass the Secondary School Leaving Exam that comprises of an achievement test in relation to the six subjects. Each subject has a value of ten points. In order to pass the stage of graduation, the student should score 30 points. Score below that of the 30 will disqualify a candidate in sitting for the University Entrance Examination (Hayden and Thi Ngoc Lan 2013). The University Entrance Examination necessitates a student to sit for an exam in 3 out of 4 fixed group of subject. After 15 years of rigorous labour, Vietnamese education has got positive results like increased enrolment along with improvement in the school infrastructure. The education system is diversifying in different forms in terms of mode of delivery along with resources. Currently the emphasis is on informal education along with that of open learning. Distance education and joint venture with different foreign institutions are gradually gaining ground. (Hayden and Thi Ly 2015). Proportion of the students in the non-public educational institution is increasing at a rapid pace. Social contribution in the arena of education has produced significant results. Investment in the school buildings and construction in relation to the school infrastructure are important aspects that are attended to by the public thus leading to a lot of financial contribution by the society. Standard targeted training helps in the development of teachers so that they can reach the standard that is set by the Ministry of Education and Training. Periodic training is provided to the teachers so that they are updated in relation to the new information regarding the educational policies. Textbook targeted training is provided to the teachers in case of changes in curriculum. The institutions of teacher training are equipped very poorly as they have outdated facilities along with poor training methods (Tran 2016). The main focus of training is on the theoretical aspects as compared to that of the practical aspects which proves to be a hurdle for the teachers when they emerge into the professional domain. It has been found from surveys conducted that around 20,000 people graduate in each year and the universities produce around 400,000 students. Recent labour reports have brought out the fact that the number of unemployed university graduates is increasing and there are around 26,000 unemployed university graduates in the second to fourth quarter of 2015 (Capaldo, Izurieta and Sundaram 2016). Number of the jobless graduates of the university has almost reached 225,000. The schools need to reform the training methods along with that of curricula that can help the students of the university in becoming employed. References: Capaldo, J., Izurieta, A. and Sundaram, J.K., 2016.Trading down: unemployment, inequality and other risks of the Trans-Pacific Partnership agreement(No. 16-01). GDAE, Tufts University. Hayden, M. and Thi Ly, P., 2015. Higher education access and inclusion: Lessons from Vietnam. InMitigating Inequality: Higher Education Research, Policy, and Practice in an Era of Massification and Stratification(pp. 19-33). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Hayden, M. and Thi Ngoc Lan, L., 2013. Vietnam: the education system-a need to improve quality. Hayden, M. and Thiep, L.Q., 2015. A 2020 vision for higher education in Vietnam.International Higher Education, (44). Tran, L., Marginson, S., Do, H., Le, T., Nguy, N.T., Vu, T. and Pham, T., 2016.Higher education in Vietnam: Flexibility, mobility and practicality in the global knowledge economy. Springer. Tran, T.T., 2016. Building a Close Connection between Higher Education and Industry for a Better Education Outcome for Vietnam. Ziguras, C. and Pham, A., 2016. Internationalization of higher education in Vietnam: Moving towards interdependence.

The Life & Philosophy Of Friedrich Nietzsche Essays -

The Life & Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche Philosophy Class Essay Born: 1844. Rocken, Germany Died: 1900. Weimar, Germany Major Works: The Gay Science (1882), Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883-1885), Beyond Good & Evil (1886), On the Genealogy of Morals (1887), MAJOR IDEAS Self deception is a particularly destructive characteristic of West Culture. Life is The Will To Power; our natural desire is to dominate and reshape the world to fit our own preferences and assert our personal strength to the fullest degree possible. Struggle, through which individuals achieve a degree of power commensurate with their abilities, is the basic fact of human existence. Ideals of human equality perpetuate mediocrity -- a truth that has been distorted and concealed by modern value systems. Christian morality, which identifies goodness with meekness and servility is the prime culprit in creating a cultural climate that thwarts the drive for excellence and self realization God is dead; a new era of human creativity and achievement is at hand. -- Great Thinkers In The Western World. By: Ian P. McGreal, 1992 PREFACE Much information is available on Mr. Friedrich Nietzsche, including many books that he wrote himself, during his philosophical career. I took this as a good sign I would find a fountain of enlightened material produced by the man. I've had to go through a bit of my own philosophical meditations to put my own value judgements aside, and truly look for the contributions Nietzsche gave to philosophy. Much of my understanding came only after I had a grasp of Neitzsche's history; therefore, I encourage you to read-up on his history before diving into his philosophy (see Appendix I). The modern Westerner might disagree with every aspect of his philosophy, but there are many things one must unfortunately admit are true (only if you put your morality aside). So, from here, I will present his contributions to philosophy, and do my best to delete my own opinions, other than to say that he was not the chosen topic of this paper out of any admiration. THE PHILOSOPHY OF FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE Sometimes philosophy is called "timeless," implying that it's lessons are of value to any generation. This may be hard to see in Nietzsche's work; but, we are assured that it was appropriate thought for his time. However, even Nietzsche's critics admit that his words hold an undeniable truth, as hard as it is to accept. Perhaps this is why his work is timeless, and has survived 150 years in print. Christianity "God is Dead!" announced Zarathustra (better known as Zoroaster), in Neitzsche's proudest book, Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883-1885). Unlike many philosophers, Nietzsche never tried to prove or disprove the existence of God, just that belief in God can create sickness; and to convince that highest achievements in human life depend on elimination of God. Whether God existed had no relevance in his goal. Proclamation of the death of God was a fundamental ingredient in the revaluation of values Nietzsche advocated. "Nothing has done more than Christianity to entrench the morality of mediocrity in human consciousness." "Christian love extols qualities of weakness; it causes guilt. Charity is just teaching hatred and revenge directed toward nobility." "Belief in God is a tool to bring submission to the individual of noble character." -- F. Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Hero Morality Nietzsche had an ideal world in mind, with an ideal government and an ideal God: the "Overman" or "Superman." These Gods were a product of natural selection, or social Darwinism. He felt, very strongly, that any kind of moral limitations upon man would only stand in the way of The Overman. "The Will To Power," his strongest teaching, meant that The Overman should and would do anything possible to gain power, control and strength. If one showed the smallest bit of weakness or morality, he would be killed by the stronger Overman, and taken over. Thus, the advancement of The Master Race (Nietzsche's "Master Race" will be discussed later). "Not mankind, but superman is the goal. The very last thing a sensible man would undertake would be to improve mankind: mankind does not improve, it doesn't even exist - it is an abstraction." "... his superman as the individual rising

Tuscan Columns From Roman Architecture

Tuscan Columns From Roman Architecture The Tuscan column - plain, without carvings and ornaments - represents one of the five orders of classical architecture and is a defining detail of todays Neoclassical style building. Tuscan is one of the oldest and most simple architectural form practiced in ancient Italy. In the United States, the column named after the Tuscany region of Italy is one of the most popular column types to hold up American front porches. From the bottom up, any column consists of a base, a shaft, and a capital. The Tuscan column has a very simple base upon which sets a very simple shaft. The shaft is usually plain and not fluted or grooved. The shaft is slender, with proportions similar to a Greek Ionic column. At the top of the shaft is a very simple, round capital. The Tuscan column has no carvings or other ornamentation. Fast Facts: Tuscan Column Shaft is slender and smooth, without flutes or groovesBase is simpleCapital is round with unornamented bandsAlso known as Tuscany column, Roman Doric, and Carpenter Doric Tuscan and Doric Columns Compared A Roman Tuscan column resembles a Doric column from ancient Greece. Both column styles are simple, without carvings or ornaments. However, a Tuscan column is traditionally more slender than a Doric column. A Doric column is stocky and usually without a base. Also, the shaft of a Tuscan column is usually smooth, while a Doric column usually has flutes (grooves). Tuscan columns, also known as Tuscany columns, are sometimes called Roman Doric, or Carpenter Doric because of the similarities. Origins of the Tuscan Order Historians debate when the Tuscan Order emerged. Some say that Tuscan was a primitive style that came before the famous Greek Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders. But other historians say that the Classical Greek Orders came first, and that Italian builders adapted Greek ideas to develop a Roman Doric style that evolved into the Tuscan Order. Buildings With Tuscan Columns Boone Hall Plantation, Mount Pleasant, South Carolina. John Moore/Getty Images (cropped) Considered strong and masculine, Tuscan columns originally were often used for utilitarian and military buildings. In his Treatise on Architecture, the Italian architect Sebastiano Serlio (1475–1554) called the Tuscan order suitable to fortified places, such as city gates, fortresses, castles, treasuries, or where artillery and ammunition are kept, prisons, seaports and other similar structures used in war. In the United States, many antebellum plantation homes were adorned with Tuscan columns, as the Greek Revival style suited the authority demanded of the masters house. Tuscan columns projected a nos include Boone Hall in South Carolina, the Rosalie Mansion in Natchez, Mississippi, Houmas House plantation near New Orleans, Louisiana, and the 1861 Gaineswood plantation house in Demopolis, Alabama. The Long Branch Estate in Millwood, Virginia was built in the Federal style in 1813, but when porticos and columns were added around 1845, the house style became Classical (or Greek) Revival. Why? The columns, Tuscan in the North and Ionic columns in the South, are features of Classical architecture. Franklin D. Roosevelts Little White House, Warm Springs, Georgia. Bettmann/Getty Images (cropped) In the 20th century, builders in the United States adopted the uncomplicated Tuscan form for wood-framed Gothic Revival, Georgian Colonial Revival, Neoclassical, and Classical Revival homes. With simple, easy-to-construct columns, simple homes could become regal. Residential examples abound throughout the U.S. In 1932, the future president Franklin Delano Roosevelt built a home in Warm Springs, Georgia, hoping to find a cure for his polio by swimming in the warm waters of the south. FDR chose a classical approach to his Little White House, with a pediment being sustained by the strength of the Tuscan columns. Tuscan Columns on Shingled Cottage. Compassionate Eye Foundation/Getty Images Adding a portico with columns, even simple columns, can add grandeur to a home - and affect the entire style. Even the informality of shingle siding can be transformed by a simple white column. The Tuscan column is seen throughout the world in residential architecture. Carpenters could easily shave and shape long wooden pieces to desired heights. Today, manufacturers produce all types of columns from all types of materials. If you live in a historic district, however, the type of column and how its made is very important when repairs are necessary. Although the homeowner can achieve the Tuscan look with a polymer plastic column, historic preservationists encourage replacing rotted wooden columns with new wooden columns. It could be worse - remember that Tuscan columns used to be carved from marble stone, a replacement that no historic commission would enforce. Columned Porches in Salem, Massachusetts. Jackie Craven Slender and unornamented, Tuscan columns are perfect to support the height of multi-story front porches. By painting them the same color as the molding, rails, and trim, the columns become integrated into the design of a New England home. Tuscan columns can be found on many front porches across the U.S. A colonnade, or a series of columns, is often made up of Tuscan columns. The simplicity of its individual design creates a majesty when many columns are evenly spaced in rows. The colonnade at Saint Peters Square in Vatican City is a well-known example of Tuscan columns. Likewise, sections of the colonnade walkways on the Lawn of Thomas Jeffersons University of Virginia also represent the Tuscan Order. Colonnade at the University of Virginia. Jay Paul/Getty Images The Tuscan column may be Italian in origin, but Americans have embraced the architecture as their own - in large part, thanks to Americas gentleman architect, Thomas Jefferson.

Pope John Paul essays

Pope John Paul essays On May 18,1920, in Wadowice Poland, Karol Jzef Wojtyla was born. His parents names were Emilia and Karol; they had an elder son named Edmund who was born on August 27, 1906. Emilia also gave birth to a daughter however, there are no records of her birth, baptism or death as a baby. Lolek (as Karol Jzef was called by his family and friends) was baptized by a military chaplain, Father Franciszek Zak on June 20,1920 at St. Marys Church. September 15, 1926 Karol began first grade at a local school. Here he excelled in all areas of study; religion, math, drawing, singing, games handicrafts and exercise. Soon though his life would change forever. Emilia was often very sick, and died at the age of forty-five due to kidney failure, and heart disease. Lolek was only in the third grade at the time of his mothers death. To this day Pope John Paul II keeps a photographic portrait of his parents on a table in his bedroom at both the Vatican and his summer residence at Castle Gandolfo and that is how he remembers his mother. After Karols mother died, his father (referred to in Wadowice as the captain) began to take on the responsibility of both parents. Their day began at 7 oclock in the morning with mass at St. Marys church where Lolek served as an alter boy. They would then eat breakfast, and get ready for school. In the early afternoon Lolek would meet his father for the main meal of the day, followed by two hours of playing and homework. At night, the captain would make a light meal for supper then the two would take walks together. During his high school years Lolek began to grow closer to his elder brother Edmund. They were never able to spend a lot of time together because Edmund was away at medical school. When he moved closer to home, they went to soccer games, and visited together while Edmund was at work in the hospital. On December 5,1932 Loleks brothe...

British Car Market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

British Car Market - Essay Example The perfect competition is mere terminology that is used to describe a situation which can be easily comprehended by new learners in Economics. In the real world there is no market that can be classified as being a perfect market. The main idea behind the perfect market is the term "perfect competition". Perfect competition refers to the case where every aspect of competition is known thus giving all information to the market. In a perfect competition, an individual firm is called a price-taker; this is because the market forces decide upon the equilibrium price and quantity. The point that everything is known means that regardless of how much a firm produces it will get the same price throughout its schedule as demand is constant and no one can raise the price or even lower it as the elasticity is 'ZERO' in this case and the addition of each unit in the output brings bout the same change as the previous one. This could be well reflected by the understanding of the Marginal Revenue p rinciple. In the perfect market, demand tends to stay at the same level throughout the schedule so any increment to the cost will only add up to the loss. The main tendency of a perfect market is to produce at the lowest cost possible because price is the only factor which is considered important. In a perfect market, there are a large number of buyers and sellers. This means that the market concentration ratio is very low for each firm which adds to the fact that there would be no effect upon the market if a firm collapses or enters into competition. The addition would only add to the overall output and nothing else and the addition would be of quite a low grain. Product Homogeneity Homogeneity of production is another factor that hinders the classification of the car market as being perfect. In a perfect competition, the products are homogenous that is they have the same attributes as of their substitutes or competitor products. This means that it will not make a difference that which item you buy and from where you buy as long as it matches your description. Since the products are homogenous in the market than quality issues can be raised whereas in a car market one is paying a worthy amount so it is important to have a distinction on what he buys. Cars are also classified as "Status Symbols", keeping this in mind we come to the point that distinction is necessary and thus homogeneity in this market is not acceptable. Entry and Exit Moving ahead we have the case for entry and exit. In a perfect market, every one is free to enter and exit at will. This means that costs are not an issue in this type of problem as free entry and exit means that the costs are low for firms and they can easily switch production among commodities. Further a perfect competition is dominated by small firms this is why the HHI (Herfindahl index) is low for these firms. Imagine that a car producer can switch production easily. SILLY isn't it Yes it is. The machinery required to manufacture a car is very different from that which makes Balloons. In this case if the demand for cars falls so can the producer shift to the Balloon industry in a momentary run Never, it is difficult to shutdown large

Data collection, reliability, and validity discussion Assignment

Data collection, reliability, and validity discussion - Assignment Example Therefore, the study relied on secondary data collected and recorded in these online databases. The method selected for data collection was appropriate to meet the objective of the study. The objective of the study required a large pool of information, which the online databases provided. They provided access to cross-historical and international data from various research studies focusing on a wide range of variables. Secondary data presents the advantage of pre-established validity and reliability particularly secondary data from reliable databases. The reviewed studies are valid indicators of the effects of larval therapy on the bacterial load in chronic wounds. In my opinion, the online databases provided the information needed to answer the research question. They also provided a large sample, thus, increasing the validity and reliability of the information. The research findings were also consistent. Reliability and validity and are functions of the data collection method and the source, which in my opinion the online databases provided for this

Government Intervention in the Workplace and Economic Development Essay Example for Free

Government Intervention in the Workplace and Economic Development Essay In a free economic system, the decisions made by the buyers and decisions made by the suppliers, determine equilibrium prices and levels of output, in a free market. Scarce resources are thus allocated according to the competing pressures of demand and supply. An increase in demand of a product, signals the producers to increase the supply of the commodity, as potential profit levels increase so as to meet the increased demand. The working of a free market mechanism is a strong tool which has been used in determining allocation of resources among competing ends (Riley, 2006). There exists an increased claim that when issues, and policies are left on their own economic devices rather than instigating a state control on them, it would result to a more harmonious and equal society with increase in economic development. This concept is based on the liberal theory of economics which was first believed to be formulated by Adam Smith. It proposes a society where there is minimal government intervention in the economy. When government intervenes in workplaces, does it result to economic development? This is an issue of contention between various economists, and we shall look at both the advantages and the disadvantages of government intervention in working places and the effect on economic development (Mishra, Navin Geeta, 2006). The government has various goals and it may intervene in the price mechanism, in order to change resource allocation, with a view to attain a specific social or economic welfare. The government intervenes in the free market system so as to influence allocation of resources in ways that will be favorable in meeting their goals. These goals might include correcting a market failure, achieving a more equitable wealth distribution in the economy, or general improvement in the performance of the economy. These interventions however come with a certain cost on the working of economic systems (Mishra, Navin Geeta, 2006). Government has continually set rules and regulations that govern conditions and operations in work places. These rules and regulations, may affect supply or output of a certain commodity. We shall examine different areas that the government has intervened in work places and its consequent effect on the economy. It is in order for government to intervene as it has multiple macro-economic goals of achievement of economic development, full employment, and price stability, among others. These goals sometimes are contradictory as the achievement of one goal affects the attainment of the other (Brux, 2008). Price controls In various work places the government can impose price controls. There are two forms of price controls which can be imposed by the government. The government can impose high prices for certain goods which are referred to as floor prices. This is a price that is set in which a commodity cannot be sold below this price. Consumers are thus required to pay high prices for these commodities regardless whether the demand is low or otherwise. It ensures that the income by the producers of these commodities is higher than they could have otherwise obtained in a deregulated market (Petkantchin, 2006). The other type of price control is what is referred as price ceiling. It is a price that is set by the government, whereby suppliers are not allowed to exceed this price. It is an incentive to ensure that needy buyers or consumers can obtain this commodity at a lower price. This control is mostly found in the main utilities such as telecommunications, water, gas and others. Free market economists argue that this control increases the burden of costs to businesses which damage their competitiveness as a result of huge amount of red tape (Riley, 2006). When prices are freely set by the market, they easily regulate the economy. Producers are able to determine which products are highly valued and preferred by the consumers, they help them ascertain the management methods and technologies which will produce the greatest economic well being. Firms therefore attain incentives in order to innovate, integrate desired management skills in order to produce the desired commodities. Prices are also good indicators of the availability of resources. If the price of a commodity increases as a result of shortage, it signals the producer that, the there is a need to cut back on wastage of that resource, and efficient use of it. In general terms, prices enable economic players to enhance the most efficient use of scarce economic resources. When the government controls prices, whether in form of a price floor or a price ceiling, then it becomes a disadvantage to the economy (Petkantchin, 2006). The government requires that in order for a certain business to be conducted, a license is necessary. This is a form of government intervention in work places, since it creates barriers to entry for potential competition. According to Brux (2008), licenses are issued to ensure that customers are protected from inferior quality goods and services. Licenses however, are harmful to these consumers when they are a requirement of the law. This is because they reduce the availability of a certain commodity or service in a particular area, more so when there is a quota on the number of licenses to be issued. It is also detrimental to the well being of the consumers when the license fees are so high that smaller competitors cannot afford. This limits entry to a certain market which can be a way of creating monopoly. Prices charged on the commodity are higher than when there is a more liberal market. This affects the economic well being of a nation. The government also intervenes in work places by the use of fiscal policies. It alters the level and the pattern of demand for a particular commodity in the market which has its consequences in economic development. One such policy is the use of indirect taxes on demerit goods. This includes goods such as alcohol, tobacco consumption among others. Their consumption comes with a certain cost on the health or the general welfare of the consumer. The government induces such taxes, in order to increase the price and thereby increase the opportunity cost of consumption. Consumer demand towards such commodities decreases. This intervention means that these industries would not perform at their optimal point. They reduce their production so as to cater for the reduced demand of their commodities. It is a compromise on full employment that macro economic policies try to achieve, and as a result lower the level of economic development (Brux, 2008). Employment laws that govern businesses have been put in place by the government. They are a form of government interventions that also affect economic development. In the employment law, the government offers some legal protection for workers by setting the maximum working hours or setting the minimum wages to be paid to workers. Organizations are thus controlled in form of wages paid to workers, which should have otherwise been left to be determined by the competitive laws of labor demand and supply. The effect of this intervention is an increase in the amount that an organization spends on wages. There is also a limitation that is placed by the government in form of working hours. This acts to curtail production levels which have a negative effect on the GDP. The profitability of the firm is also affected by increasing its operation costs. This reduces organizational profits that would have been used to increase the level of organizational investments (Riley, 2006). When the government pays subsidies, it intervenes in the work places as it will obtain the money from businesses and public borrowing. This is an increase in public expenditure which means that the government has to increase the interest rates in order to attract funds from investors. Increase in interest rates has negative effect on businesses. This is because the cost of borrowing finances for investments increases which reduces the overall profitable ventures that are available for the business. The overall activity of business is thus curtailed or in more general terms the level of investment in the economy decreases. A decrease in the level of investment reduces the aggregate demand which inhibits economic development (FunQA. com, 2009). Government intervention is sometimes in form of tariffs. The government intervenes in imported products by imposing high taxes on them. They do this in order for the government to earn income and protect the local industries. When a consumer consumes these goods, he/she pays high prices for them which make the consumer worse off. The consumer is thus forced to consume less of other products and services. In the macro economy, the effect is to reduce demand of other goods and services which will make the economy to be worse off. This government intervention has a negative impact on economic development (Pearson Education Inc. , 2010). It is very common for both the small and big businesses to call in the government so as to protect them. Small businesses requests the government to offer them less regulation while increase the same on the big businesses. They also ask for fair pricing laws which act to hurt the consumers. Pricing laws keep prices for commodities high, since they come in form of price floors and hurt efficient competitors. This is because efficient competitors are capable of offering the same commodity in form of quality and quantity at a lower price but the law by the government prohibits such. Competition is thus hindered to a greater extent as prices are maintained at a high level. If the commodity in question is an essential commodity, it would results to inflation which has adverse effects on economic development (Brux, 2008). Market Liberalization The government sometimes uses its power in order to introduce fresh competition into a certain market. This will happen in the case where the government breaks the monopoly power of a certain firm. It ensures that competitors can penetrate the market which enhances the quality of products and services which are offered to the consumers. It introduces a more liberal economy, where the market is not controlled by one player who dictates on the prices and the level of output. These are the laws of competition policy, which act against price fixation by companies and other forms of anti-competitive behavior (Riley, 2006). Other benefits that arise from government intervention include correction of externalities. Externalities can be defined as the spill over costs or in some cases benefits. Externalities make the market to operate in a level that the amount of output and the level of production are not at a socially optimal level. When there is a lot of corn being produced, the law of demand and supply will mean that price has to decrease as supply exceeds demand. When the government allows the price of corn to decrease beyond a certain level, the producers of corn will be at a loss which will de motivate further production of corn. In such circumstances, the government intervenes by the use of price floor where price would not go below that limit. Leaving the market forces to adjust the price and output will socially affect some sectors of the economy and as such lead to the welfare of citizens being worse off (Pearson Education Inc. , 2010). Another reason as to why the government intervenes in the economy is to correct market failures. Consumers sometimes lack adequate information as to the benefits and costs which come from the consumption of a certain product. Government thus imposes laws that will ensure that the consumers have adequate information about the products so as to improve the perceived costs and benefits of a product. Compulsory labeling that is done on cigarette packages is one of those legal concerns that give adequate health warnings to cigarette smokers. It is a way in which the government protects its citizens from exploitation and harmful habits that would affect them in the long run. This might have a short term effect in form of decreased profits on Tobacco manufacturers, but long term effects on improved health of consumers and a saving on future medical expenses (Riley, 2006). According to Riley (2006), it will be known that government intervention does not always result into the plans and strategies set or prediction by economic theory. It is rare for consumers and businesses to behave the way the government exactly wanted them to behave. This in economics has been referred to as law of unintended consequences which can come into play in any government intervention. This would have negative consequences on the economic level since inappropriate policies would mean negative effects and influence. The market is able to maintain itself in equilibrium through price mechanisms and other economic factors. When the government intervenes, it affects this smooth operation of the market and this may lead to either shortages or surpluses. The effect becomes worse when the government relies on poor information in making these interventions in workplaces. The effects might be expensive to the administration of businesses, and the interventions might also be disruptive to the operations of the business if these interventions are major and frequent. It might also remove some liberties (Pearson Education Inc. , 2010). Government interventions in workplaces should not be aimed to create great changes in the market. The conditions prevailing in the economy should be well reviewed and analyzed. This will ensure that threats that can damage the economy have been identified and measures against such taken. It would be of great advantage if government interventions are designed to facilitate the smooth working of the economy rather than implementing a new and a direct control over the market. They should be assessed on whether they lead to a better use of scarce resources, whether fairness is being upheld in the intervention and whether the policy enhances or reduces the capacity of future generations in improving economic activity (Riley, 2006). Conclusion Some economists believe that with perfect competition, there will be no need for any government intervention. Is it therefore wise to leave the economy to the doctrine of laissez-fare where there is no control or intervention by the government? As much as there exists some negative effects on economic development due to government control, the benefits which accrue as a result of controlled government intervention would be under no circumstances be compared with the risks that would accrue when the government adopts the liberal economic structure. References Brux, J. (2008). Economics Issues and Policy. 4th ed. Ohio: Cengage Learning FunQA. com, (2009). Economics: Advantages and Disadvantages of Government Intervention? Retrieved 21 May 2010, from http://www. funqa. com/economics/92-Economics-2. html Mishra, R. Navin, B. Geeta P. eds. (2006). Economic liberalization and public enterprises. ISBN 8180692574 Pearson Education, Inc. (2010). Reasons for government intervention in the market. Retrieved 21 May 2010, from http://wps. pearsoned. co. uk/ema_uk_he_sloman_econbus_3/18/4748/1215583. cw/index. html Petkantchin, V. (2006). The Pernicious Effects of Price Controls. Retrieved 21 May 2010, from http://docs. google. com/viewer? a=vq=cache:mYXWxJC6EpMJ:www. iedm. org/uploaded/pdf/avr06_en. pdf+Price+controls+and+their+effectshl=engl=kepid=blsrcid=ADGEEShvcqptHKj3Y_Mrxy5hhG7resIp_Y7FVbxWwhBqmLTBqzdSn3hvuXLutFYW9m1uRWom_D5InOy5G5Jp5AMTuCoFxKA-Rj-1tbrOA0PrnDz5VOBbruMR2HYdYcYm-SLf5Oq_aZBmsig=AHIEtbTFfKO-NWp1d5bX2HTlouAB_gP1fQ Riley, G. (2006). Government Intervention in the Market. Retrieved 21 May 2010, from http://tutor2u. net/economics/revision-notes/as-marketfailure-government-intervention-2. html

Great Expectations by Charles Dickens Essay -- Great Expectations Essay

Great Expectations by Charles Dickens In Great Expectations, Dickens wants to explore what it means to be a gentleman in the rapidly changing Victorian England. He suggests that money is not everything, but you need some to get yourself started in the world. Being a gentleman means that you have to be moral, kind, courteous, hard working, financially independent and educated. Pip’s experiences of social class, in some ways mirror those of Dickens’ childhood. Dickens’ parents were middle class but moved down the class ladder when they moved house, (they moved from quite a nice house into a slightly smaller house in a slightly less desirable area, over and over again, due to financial problems, hence moving down the class ladder) which happened quite often. We say that they have downward social mobility. In the early stages of Great Expectations, Pip experiences many different types of social classes. These include the criminal class and the upper class, two very different classes. Dickens explores the idea of a modern gentleman through Pip’s experiences; at the beginning of the novel, Pip is in his own village, surrounded by people just like him and of his own class. Then, he is taken to Satis House where he meets Estella, who is of a much higher class. Estella changes his views on becoming an apprentice to Joe in the forge; previously Pip looks forward to it, thinking that it is the best thing in the world, but he changes his views drastically after he meets Estella because he believes that Estella will think that he is even more common than she already does. Jaggers, who is a lawyer representing Pip’s benefactor, comes to see him and informs him that he will inherit a grand property later in life... ...nce again, thanks to Pip. Pip discovers that Mr. Jaggers’ housekeeper, Molly is Estella’s mother and that Magwitch, his benefactor, is her father. Orlick, who used to be one of Joe’s apprentices, confessed to attacking Mrs. Joe after he attempted to murder Pip. He is sent to the county jail after breaking into Mr. Pumblechook’s house. Magwitch has a struggle with Compeyson, the man who stood up Miss Havisham on her wedding day and ruined her life, and Compeyson dies, after betraying Magwitch. After being abroad for 11 years, Pip realizes that he has neglected Joe and Biddy and apologizes to them when he comes back, a self-made man. He realizes that his ways must change and begins the long and difficult process of becoming a true gentleman. He also goes to Satis House and visits Estella. He sees that she is no longer as black-hearted as she used to be.

Importance of good leadership for a business Essay

Leadership is the process by which an individual influences, motivates and controls the behaviour of others towards a specific set of objectives. Leadership is the composite of abilities and characteristics of an individual leader of the environment in which he operates and of the relationship developed between the leader and the led. It is very important to have good leadership for a business to succeed as employees will only follow a good leader and respond positively towards their direction. A good leader will have ability to obtain the highest quality from subordinates that they have the capacity to render. True leadership is a positive force, based on cooperation and mutual trust. A poor leader will often fail to win over staff and have problems communicating with workers. Leadership style is the way a manager takes decisions and deals with the staff. An effective leadership style is one that best compliments the organizational environment, the task to be accomplished and the pe rsonal characteristics of the people involved. There are several types of leadership styles, which are autocratic, democratic, paternalistic and laissez-faire. Body: Explanation on Autocratic style, Democratic Style, Laissez-faire and paternalistic style. The autocratic Leaders is authoritarian and assume respect for all aspect of operation. Communication is one-way with little as no scope of feedback. With autocratic style, we can identify the dictators who demand total compliances from the work-force. He demotivate staff and create frustration and fears. The work group depend on the leader and will be unable to act independently. However, the autocratic style seems efficient and essential in some situation such as police force. There is clearly chain of command with no ambiguity and so autocratic leadership produces quick decision. The democratic leader seeks the opinion of subordinates before taking final decision. However, they retain ultimate responsibilities for decision making. It is especially appropriate where experience workers need to be fully involve in their work. Participation of subordinate’s results in improve decision making, higher moral and more motivated. But consultation is time consuming and may delay acti vities. There is always the danger of losing management control and attempt to evade responsibilities. Under  Laissez-faire style leadership, group members have total freedom. The leader set down all objectives and the subordinates have clear parameters within which they should work. Once objectives have been set, subordinates are left alone to achieve objectives. This style of leadership works fine when subordinates are willing and able to accept responsibility. Under such style of management, success depend on the competence and integrity of subordinates. But workers are motivated to work. A paternalistic management style is a form of management whereby managers pay more attention to the social aspects of their employees; they are concerned with keeping them happy and motivated, and act as a sort of father figure to the employees. In such a management style, decisions are made with the best interests of the workers at heart. Conclusion: Importance of leadership Leadership is therefore crucial in motivating and inspiring the workforce so that they perform the assign task willingly and in an efficient and effective manner. Thus leadership is concern of influencing others to achieve aims and objectives. Management and leadership skills are needed in every industry and every walk of life. It is essential therefore for new managers to be provided with opportunities to learn how to manage and lead people.

Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodology Essay

Chapter 3: Methodology and Design Chapter 3 Research Design and Methodology 3.1 Aims This investigation was concerned generally to see how new technologies come into the everyday lives of different people, and how in turn these people engage with these offerings: the way they are appropriated, including adoption, learning and struggling, but also other strategies for non-adoption, or arms length appropriation. Particular issues include the influence of knowledge, use and resource on ICT appropriation within and between domains of the life-space, addressing both opportunities for crossover and reinforcement of boundaries. More broadly it asked how the appropriation of technologies, such as the PC, the mobile phone and the Internet is proceeding now that certain technical elements and skills have left the domain of the early adopter. The study started from three motivations: 1. To study everyday use and context of technology in its broad rather than narrow definition, covering the whole of the life space. This sought to overcome the limitations of previous research that focuses rather exclusively on the home, or work, or clubs only, and generally neglects crossovers, (except when work comes in to the home in the case of tele-work). It is also sought to explore how the computer and some other technologies cross over between domains, and the supposed convergence of television, computer and telecommunications technologies. 2. A ‘person centred’ approach to living with technology, rather than an ‘artefact centred’ approach. With so many products being developed, rather than follow the uptake of a specific selected technology, which may fail, or succeed, this study looks at what is actually appropriated or engaged with by the respondents in different circumstances during a period of intense technological change. 3. A sociotechnical approach to appropriation, based  on three levels. Rather than being artefact or system centred, the study recognises the socio-cultural nature of innovation in the ‘information society’. It seeks to understand: Chapter 3: Methodology and Design a) The biographies and appropriation of things or artefacts themselves. b) The biography and appropriation and reinvention of proposed uses, programmes and visions that accompany artefacts. Often a particular technology may fail, but it is only a step on the way to adoption and development of a class of services such as home shopping, or the mobile office, computers in education. In an age of multiple competing technologies and service providers, the class of service is another key level of analysis. Reinvention of services and changes in attitude often occurs ahead of technical innovation, but nevertheless can be seen as part of the innovation process. c) A third level is that of issues on the macro scale, but affect individuals and communities – issues such as privacy, reliance on technology, the effect on the news media, on national identity, the idea of progress through technology etc. This includes â€Å"tales of technological utopianism† (Kling and S., 1988) and dystopianism, as well as more concrete issues such as copyright. These may be harder to grasp, but they are central to the idea of the information society, are the subject of extensive academic business and policy work, and are debates that are accessible to everyone. They are also represented by particular products – such as government legislation, which is in its turn ‘consumed’ in its own way. 3.1.1 Research Questions From these general aims, a number of specific research questions and issues emerged and were further refined in the course of developing the research design. The main questions are summarised below: 1. What are the crossovers between work and home and other domains of life in the experience and appropriation of new ICTs? How does technology help break down boundaries, or used to reinforce them? 2. What are the issues that make adoption and use of ICTs difficult, such at they create ambivalence between benefits and problems, and need practical and social resources to cope with them 3. How important is the local social network as resource and factor in the diffusion of technologies, and the appropriation process? (This question was particularly interesting since some of the technologies in question are ‘network’ technologies, and their use depends on having other people to use them with). 4. Why do people not adopt new ICTs that are becoming popular all around them, and what does it mean to be a non-adopter? Can we also ask how people resist technical change? Chapter 3: Methodology and Design These questions throw light on the greater issue of whether we can question an individualistic consumption and ownership model. Two secondary questions that motivated the research, but are not examined in this thesis in details are: 1. How are people experiencing the convergence of technologies, industries etc, and engaging with the industry driven development of new classes of services and uses. Are there types of classes of uses developed by users, or parts of everyday life that are not part of the industry and policy agenda. How are, and may people respond to the key services that are being developed for new technical platforms, and what applications and services appear to be proving most relevant and popular? 2. How do the academic and policy issues around the innovation and appropriation of new ICTs form part of the experience of people not necessarily engaged with them directly? How do these issues become apparent and how do people engage with them? In these questions issues of personal, social, functional and technical ‘context’ is be central. The Social Shaping of Technology perspective suggests a social constructivist perspective on one hand – the way that  technologies, uses, concepts and roles are constructed in context and in ‘use’, but on the other hand stresses the influence of the characteristics of the technology, and in this case information and communications, in shaping the meanings and context. While the meanings of technologies may be shaped by the broader social and cultural context, and discourse, the technology itself has a powerful reverse effect. Most studies of technology and innovations have found the same broad trends in use and adoption of ICTs, with age, gender, money and occupation being important predictors of attitudes, use and rate of adoption. Assumptions are made about the difference between the way men and women, or the young and the old, approach technology, and are addressed by industry. However as ICTs become less ‘technological’, and digital computing technology becomes more and more ubiquitous, I wanted to take a critical Chapter 3: Methodology and Design stance, not looking for stereotypes but trying to see from ‘bottom up’ observation how and why there may be different approaches to new ICT between people, based not only on demographics, but also on a range of other influencing factors. Do changes in employment, education and expectations alongside changes in technology challenge our stereotypes of women and men, or the old and the young? In order to tackle this sort of issue I needed to study a number of different milieu, with a range of people of various ages, occupations, resources, attitudes to technology etc, in order to get a range of different examples to compare and contrast. However the number of people I could interview would be limited by my time and the type of research method I chose. 3.2 Designing the Field Work This research design builds on research done into use of technology and media in the home in the various other spaces using a qualitative research method1. This discussion of the methodology attempts to present some of the specific tools and experiences used to inform the design of the research and the development of an interpretation. 3.2.1 Studying the Process of Adoption and Domestication Some studies of technology are aimed at building up a picture of the use of technologies in a social system at a particular time in a generally stable situation. Others investigate the process of domestication from the moment a technology is adopted. The processes leading up to adoption are generally investigated in hindsight. Diffusion studies tend to look in hindsight at the diffusion of an innovation though a community, following one particular technology. Adoption studies, even those concentrating on word-of-mouth, and personal influence, do not look closely at the actual process of interactions in details, and seldom use qualitative research methods. In my research I wanted to look at natural setting over a period of time, to try and see what natural encounters there were with technologies, why and how these occurred, and how people engaged not only with technologies, but with ideas about them too. I wanted to see how people linked innovations into their existing cultural and technical world, how different technologies were interpreted, and how they were appropriated. I wanted Chapter 3: Methodology and Design to uncover this process and seek to understand in the context of the everyday activities, relationships, background and events of the respondent. In particular, I wanted to see how processes within the social network played a role in the way people encountered and coped with innovations. I developed a method of research, many elements of which I were reinforced by observations from number of researchers from different disciplines. Rogers (Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971) suggests that diffusion research needs to be much more processoriented than is general. It should be qualitative, and follow sequences of events over time, to try and get closer to understanding the actually adoption process. He also suggests that instead of focusing on single innovations, we should see them as part of clusters, with adoption of one linked to others, especially when boundaries between technologies is not very clear. These clusters or complexes need to be investigated in an  evolutionary sequence. He suggests we have to look for how these links are made by potential adopters, and not rely on the classification of experts. In particular, he suggest not falling for the empty vessel fallacy, assuming that potential adopters do already have the knowledge and skills (â€Å"indigenous knowledge systems†) to evaluate and use innovations relevant to their lives. In fact this is the approach of sociology of technology and of consumption – to understand how interpretations of an innovation are arrived at in the culture in which it emerges or is introduced. Developing research out of the consumer research paradigm, Mick and Fournier (Mick and Fournier, 1995) criticise the lack of research that focuses on the on the context of consumption, the pre- and post-adoption aspects of consumption and the role of symbolic. They developed a methodology using phenomenological interviews to give insight into emotional responses, as well as rational explanations given in retrospective interviewing. In particular, they recommend multi-method approaches used in longitudinal inquiries in natural settings (Mick and Fournier, 1998). Moores, who did several details studies of the domestication of radio and satellite TV suggest that future research should look to a range of ICTs, not just media technologies, and look outside the home as well as inside (Moores, 1996). Some have started to do this Chapter 3: Methodology and Design sort of research, such as Frissen and Punie (1998), who study the role of technologies in the lives of busy people.  Haddon, who has conducted much research in this field, makes a number of suggestions about the type of research that needs to be done to understand how people are appropriating the Internet (Haddon and Hartman, 1997). These include what the phenomenon symbolises to different people, including concerns that may make them wary; how they first encounter the Internet, what support they have and any problems they face; how it is perceived and maybe used in relation to other technologies and media; and where it can possibly fit into the time structures of households and individuals. (Haddon and Hartman, 1997). Technologies must not only be put in the context of other technologies and the social context, but in terms of the activities that people do to make them relevant and meaningful. It might be more interesting to go beyond what people actually say about the idea of electronic commerce to consider whether current purchasing practices might favour consumption via the Internet. For example, if a particular household only buys goods and services from offices and shops and pays in cash, not even using a credit card, then arguably they are far removed from electronic commerce over the Internet – such a development would be a major new innovation for them. Whereas for someone already tele-shopping by some means, doing so over the Internet is a variation or extension of what is familiar to them. (Haddon and Hartman, 1997). In studying a long term process of adoption, obviously it is important to find out what people actually do in their everyday activities, to understand how particular products, such as home shopping services could be relevant, and how their adoption may correspond to existing practices, or represent radical changes in activities. In some ways we are trying to find out what people might ‘need’, not in terms of specific solutions, but as â€Å"an invisible phenomena that can be deduced from the structure of everyday life† (Desjeux, Taponier et al., 1997, p.253). 3.2.2 Focusing on the Life-Space and Technology Venkatesh studied the appropriation of computers in the home and suggests that sociotechnical studies have to â€Å"attempt to capture the structure and dynamics of computer adoption and use in the home, by looking at the interaction between the social space in which the family behaviour occurs and the technological space in which technologies are embedded and used.† (Venkatesh, 1996) This is similar to much of the domestication research that tries to understand the structure of the moral economy in the home Chapter 3: Methodology and Design (Silverstone, Hirsch et al., 1992; Silverstone and Hartman, 1998). This involves looking at symbolic and practical structures of the home in terms of time, space, activities, roles, power relations, rules, and use of technologies. Studies of the workplace and computerisation take a similar view, looking to understand not only the formal organisation of work, but also the many informal relationships and activities. The aim is to build a model from the ‘bottom up’ model of â€Å"how the user will derive value from the product or service† (Carey and Elton, 1996, p.41/42), how they will make sense of in light of all their experiences across the life-space2. The intention of this study was to link the various domains of life, to study the ‘moral economy’ of both home and the work place, but also through relationships and activities that cross boundaries. Into this study of the greater life-space I needed to study how technologies arrive in this space and how they are domesticated. To do this I had to look at all the domains of activity and types of activity that made up people’s lives, and could be affected by new ICTs. The following figure gives some of the possible areas of application of technology. Chapter 3: Methodology and Design Chapter 3: Methodology and Design 3.2.3 Gaining Access One problem is to gain access to respondents, and the problems of being able to study them, and gain some familiarity with their world, or share their ‘reality’. Social science methodologies propose many different ways in which this can be achieved, and guidance on the extent to which involvement in a respondent’s life world is necessary to for particular descriptive or analytic ends. Practical problems include getting people to speak to the researcher at all, then getting them to be open, co-operative, and sincere in discussing the aspects of their lives that interest the researcher. More fundamental for research methodology is the reliance on the personal descriptions of the respondents, who may either intentionally conceal or mislead the researcher, or unintentionally mislead them. In studying someone’s life world, it is unlikely that the respondent will be able to comprehensively and thoroughly describe not only their opinions and thoughts, but the details of everyday activities and relationships, and the context in which they conduct them, especially in the space of a relatively short interview. Participant observation is a method that tries to surmount these obstacles, but at the expense of huge effort by the researcher, and can only be carried out in a situation where the researcher can actually live or work within a small group over an extended period of time. Since I intended to look at a number of groups, and across the social network of one particular member, this type of methodology is impossible. What is more, gaining access to the work place or social clubs may be possible, but living in private homes is very difficult. Only a few researchers have tried this (for example, James Lull in order to examine media use (Lull, 1990)). I wanted to study the way people encountered new technologies over a period of months or even years, when in fact key events may only occur very infrequently, so this did not make much sense. Other research methods used in media studies include asking the participants to keep diaries. This again is does not get any closer if especially if salient events occur very infrequently and outside the period of research interaction. I wanted to interview not only users of new technology for whom the technology had a direct personal relevance, but also non-users for whom it did not. I expected that during Chapter 3: Methodology and Design the process of research many of the respondents would be likely to encounter and form opinions on new ICTs and have some engagement with the process of innovation and diffusion, however unwillingly. I had to find a method that would enable me to gain access to people who did not have any interest in the subject of research- new media technologies, and who would be difficult to contact or engage with though a research method based on current users. Especially for these people I had to develop a number of tactics to bring out the discussion of new ICTs, and to build an understanding of each person’s life-world and the way that they encountered and engaged with ICT  innovations. 3.3 Initial Concept of Research Method Instead of selecting a range of established social groups, say a workplace, a club, a nuclear family, a group of friends, a shopping centre, I decided from the outset to use an Informer approach, taking as my point of entry an individual who would to some extent participate in the research as a co-researcher, and provide entry into their social ‘world’. Blumer suggest that the researcher â€Å"seek participants in the sphere of life who are who are acute observers and who are well informed†(Blumer, 1969, p.41). The research design then involved mapping the various other people that these respondents engaged with (both in relation to specific uses of ICTs and more generally) in different domains of their life sphere. I would then conduct interviews with those they work with, their family, their friends, and ask them to report on their experiences of traditional and new media and communication technologies. The Informant, and the others they identified, would not be selected on the basis that they personally use or buy any particular technology – given the symmetry principle that non-use is just as interesting as use. The crucial point is that it is the Informant’s social network and individuals within it that are being studied, not only the key Informants themselves. Whilst the selection of the initial informants would obviously have an important influence over research outcomes, any such shaping by the researcher would then be diffused as the interviews moved out to the networks identified by the Informants. Although such an approach does not Chapter 3: Methodology and Design eliminate the bias inherent in selection of respondents this kind of snowballing method does open up the range of people interviewed. The involvement of the Informant was conceived as being important for practical and theoretical reasons as well – an informant will have to be engaged as a co-researcher who will provide access for the researcher to their social groups. I did not presume that the Informant’s position would  be un-problematic, but anticipated that there would be many difficulties with their relationship to the research, and their role in forming the opinions of their groups. In fact the informant role as a point of passage between social groups is very important – however they are unlikely to be unique points of passage in real life. By interviewing a number of people who shared similar experiences and knew each other, or knew a common contact this method would also enable me to compare the experience and interpretations the respondents had of particular events, shared spaces, relationships and each other. This would make the study satisfy some of the basic demands of an ethnographic study. The aim was to conduct this study on a longitudinal basis – with the idea of repeating the fieldwork after maybe 1 year, by which time I expected that there would be appreciable changes in the discourses and use of technology in society in general and in the groups being studied. Interviews were conducted on a semi-structured basis with the help of a schedule of questions and issues (included in the Appendix). I also explored the use of other devices to prompt responses in a less structured way. Having carried out a ‘dummy run’ with these research instruments on friends and fellow students, I then undertook an initial ‘pilot study’ with the first group of interviewees. Since I was attempting an experimental and rather unstructured research design, which potentially threw up further problems, for example in data analysis, the pilot study provided an important opportunity for assessing and refining the research design. Chapter 3: Methodology and Design 3.3.1 Designing the interviews I was not trying to trace the network of influences, but rather study a group of people who interact at home, work and in other social situations, and compare their different approaches and study how they influence each others, and how the influence of third parties is passed on and ‘negotiated’ in the group. There is no need to do a complete network analysis for this, but in putting together the sample, an informants ego (personal) network is to be the basis for selection. I had to design an interview guide that would investigate the individual’s background, their everyday activities, major and minor events in their lives and their relationships with others. This would include information on activities that are currently the target of the development of ICTs, such as workplace activities, shopping, banking, media, entertainment, communications and information use. I mapped out the range of areas of life that I might have come up in the following Table. I would then focus on the knowledge and use of ICTs and how they were engaging with them. Since I was investigating the adoption process, I also tried to find out how they went about adopting new products, covering information seeking, advice taking, buying, learning etc, for what ever product. This included the importance of different personal relationships in making decisions, finding out information, and forming opinions, compared with reliance on ‘public sources’ such as shops and media. I also asked about broader issues to do with the development of technology and its impact on society, attitudes towards change, and if they had knowledge of in policy issues involved in the ‘information society’. Chapter 3: Methodology and Design The interview was flexible enough to range over issues that the respondents brought up. The main topics covered are in the table. Background, life themes and history Education background Family background Life history Important relationships Resources Everyday activities and recent events Events Life changes Work activities Domestic life 3 Shopping practices Information, Media and Communication Information use and attitude Media use Work communication Friends and family communication ICT use and knowledge ICT use ICT adoption Social Network’s use of ICTs ICT attitudes Engagement with ICTs Knowledge about ICTs Problems with technology Knowledge of implementation of ICTs in government and industry Policy issues on ICTs Table 1 Topics covered in interview schedule 3.3.2 Primary analysis of success of first pilot interviews, and comments for proceeding with concluding research on pilot. The initial respondents were found through an acquaintance, a primary school teacher who agreed to help. She named a colleague and her family as her closest network, whom she shared most things. The details are given in the next chapter. The first set of interviews was conducted in January 1997. All eight interviews were transcribed. The interviews explored the life of the participant – looking at domestic, social, employment, and economic situation, and some life history. It then looked at a number of everyday activities drawn from the original ‘plan for looking’ at new media in everyday life. The interviewing approach started not from technology, but from particular activities, and attitudes towards those activities, the social relations involved, and included instances of specific technologies. The questioning aimed to find out what the important activities, preoccupations and relationships are in the participants’ lives, and their attitudes and practices around them. Then more particular questions were asked about technology in everyday life, based on the earlier remarks of the participant, and introducing new themes. There was not an attempt to get them to define ‘technology’, or Chapter 3: Methodology and Design use my vague definition, but technologies were seen in the context of particular practices, activities and expectations. I was happy with the results of the first interviews. They laid considerable groundwork for asking about the changes in use and expectations about technologies in context over the last year. However I made changes to the question schedule, mostly as a result of how I actually conducted the interviews, but also to reinforce some of the background material. For example, I needed to bring out more details of the relationships between the participants, and ask their opinions on the other’s attitudes to information, technologies and the other activities and interests identified in the research plan. I also asked more about significant others that I was not interviewing, who lay outside the social circle of the principal informant. 3.3.3 Finding and engaging respondents I found the rest of the respondents by focusing on finding principal informants with specific backgrounds that I thought would be interesting in the light of particular interpretations of the technology: these included computer entrepreneurs, artists, senior business managers, students and unemployed teenagers. I also wanted informants who would be interested in the topic and agree to help me persuade their family, colleagues and friends to help me. Through word of mouth and email-lists and a local cybercafe I found three informants who put me in touch with their personal networks. Details of the respondents are given in the next chapter in summary and in the Appendix in much fuller detail. 3.3.4 Conduct of the interviews While I only met most of the respondents for the interviews twice, I spent a considerable amount of time with the Informants. I usually met them once to explain the purpose of the work, and get an idea if they would be interested and willing to help, and also if they could provide me with a network to interview. In particular, I met frequently with the informants in Groups 2 and 3, who were developing very interesting multimedia projects. This included spending the night on the floor of one while visiting his home in Chapter 3: Methodology and Design a snowstorm in the north of Scotland. I visited them where they worked and in their homes for the first and second interviews, and in the case of groups 1and 3, travelled to visit other members of the group with them. I made the interview the focus of a meeting in which I also tried to develop an understanding about how they lived, where they worked, the relationships with others, their interests and engagement with the subject by observation and in conversations around the interview. These conversations were used to make myself feel at home, and to make the respondent realise that I was not coming to grill them about their knowledge of complex technologies, which worried some of them. The conversations also revealed things about their relationships with others in the network, and sometimes raised issues that would not have come out in the rather more formal interview. Coming to the second round of interviews was easier in some respects, probably due to familiarity of the interviewee with me and the process of the interview, and the more relaxed relationship between me and the interviewee However, while some of the respondents had had many experiences with new technologies over the gap, others had had almost none, and could not see the point of the interview. Nonetheless it was important for me to find out why they had not, and find out what they knew about the experiences of others in their network. 3.3.5 Second Stage Empirical Data Collection The Second Interviews focused on current attitudes and use of technology, and investigate experiences and changes in activities, personal situation and  technology awareness since the first interview. It looked for the role of others in these experiences. I attempted to get participants to tell more in-depth stories about their encounters with technologies, and the way these experiences were communicated and shared at the time, and subsequently. I also wanted to try some other interview techniques to enriched the research. This is not quite ‘triangulation’ but a way to expand and deepen the understanding, rather than perform any alternative or cross-checking. For this I included interviewing in groups and using pictures to stimulate talk: Chapter 3: Methodology and Design 1. To discover what each participant knows about and is ignorant of, in relation to technological developments that have been announced by the ‘supply side’ of industry and government, particular functions and uses of new media technology, or issues raised by multimedia use. In the first interviews I waited to the very end to ask about awareness of the Internet, Digital TV etc, and offered short explanations if the participant did not know and wanted me to explain. Otherwise I did not. I wished to pursue a similar course this time, finding out how aware of these developments they are today. I used pictures, and scenarios based on their particular ‘life-worlds’. This way I hoped to discover the depth of knowledge, and interest in developments in multimedia. This will enhance my understanding of what technologies or ideas the participant comes into contact with. 2. To investigate the importance of the close social network, and to use it as a reflexive tool to bring out shared experience, and differences in attitudes and knowledge. To do this I interviewed some of the respondents in pairs or group. This was aimed at bringing out stories that did not come up in our individual talks, and to bring up more details about the relationships. It was also an attempt to give me a closer insight into shared experiences around technologies, uses of technology and attitudes including what views are held in common, what has not been shared by the participants, how they rate different sources of information and influence, and their impressions of future developments in new media technology. 3. To investigate the interaction between different areas of everyday life:  home, work, social, public, the different relationships with people in these different domains, different communications patterns, and the boundaries created between these areas. 4. To investigate changes in multimedia. Originally the research tried to focus on the aspects of everyday life that the supply industry has been predicting would be affected by new technology: e.g. shopping, information, communication at home and work, a range of work practices and activities, education and training, banking, entertainment etc. The questions explored these areas, focusing in Chapter 3: Methodology and Design advance on the issues that were arising from the supply side agenda, but allowing the respondent space to speak about how new technology was coming into their lives, and look for areas where it might do. Over the time of the research, a great many changes have come about in the use of ICTs – often in areas quite banal, and with unforeseen applications and technologies. The second interviews tried to uncover those experiences, and applications that have developed that are outside the main areas of hype. The interviews looked for ways that new technology came to be judged or coped with. I specifically looked for engagement and utility dimension of relationship to information, communications, learning or entertainment systems. The exercise showing the photographs was somewhat successful, although with some people they had no idea about any of the issues involved. The photos mean that it was easier to introduce the subjects. Sometimes it felt like going over old ground. Doing the interviews in groups led to some more information being divulged and the discussion that ensured were interesting as they revealed differences in knowledge, and attitude between those in the groups, be they a couple, a family etc. 3.4 Analysis of Data I interviewed 29 people in 4 groups, with two sets of interviews, with each interview lasting between one and two hours. Computer-aids were used to assist the management and analysis of the mass of interview transcripts. The first job was to try and extract from this material quotes corresponding to all the issues I had raised, and look for new ideas and issues arising directly from the respondents words. The NUDIST package proved extremely helpful with its powerful facilities for cross-referencing excerpts. Crucial to this is the elaboration of a set of reference terms. I developed a rough set of terms in analysing initial interviews from the first group – and subsequently refined these in the light of a larger number of responses. The aim was to balance on the one hand an openness to a wide range of responses, and on the other the need to group these experiences. This enabled a simultaneous investigation of the data from the ‘bottom up’, i.e. from the interviews themselves, and from the ‘top down’, engagement based on Chapter 3: Methodology and Design themes derived from existing theory and research questions. The categories generated and classified are listed in the Appendix. They proved very helpful in analysis, building up a picture of important dimensions of the experience of ICTs. However, as we see in the detailed empirical chapters, it was necessary to generate further more detailed schema for analysing particular aspects and processes in ICT adoption (and nonadoption). The use of computer-tools allowed considerable flexibility in this respect. These nodes were then linked further together in a number of emerging themes relevant to the network, technology, technology problems and attitudes, non-adoption, adoption, knowledge, communication and information use. Searches of the marked texts enabled groups of quotes reflecting different issues to be bought together quickly. However there was still a need to structure this in a simpler and more straight forward way in order to actually write the stories and compare and contrast experiences. 3.5 BEAN (Background, Events, Activities and Network) To structure the resultant data a framework was needed that would focus on particular dimensions of everyday life relevant to understanding the way  that people encounter technologies, think about them, adopt and use them. The approach I chose was to look at the data from four angles: Background or personal history, Events, Activities and the social Network or BEAN to make an easily memorable acronym. This gives a way to assemble the contextual information, and to highlight crossovers and boundaries in the consumption, use and domestication process. It also gives framework for then moving to analysis based on domestication, appropriation, adoption, diffusion, and consumption models. These dimensions are obviously not independent: activities are related to the network, and changes in activities and relationships. Many events could be argued to be particular types of activities that people take part in. Background or Personal History: The respondents all have a history of experiences, of use and adoption of technologies and services that influence their activities and attitudes during the study. The personal history goes beyond this to broader history of relationships, education, and other activities. This dimension includes reflections on the Chapter 3: Methodology and Design life course of the individual or group. It looks at the possibility of personal innovativeness. Events: There are three types of events that influence the adoption and appropriation of innovations: life course events, cyclical events, and one off social events or technological experiences. These events may be periods of considerable length (such as particular project at work, or the learning period for a new innovation). Activities: these describe the spheres of everyday life in which the respondent takes part, such as work, school, family life, community life, and the activities they engage in within those spheres. The use and attitude to information, technologies and communication is examined within the context of these activities. These include work tasks, domestic tasks, leisure activities, media use etc. Activities will reflect, but not be actually linked to the stages of the respondents’ life course. Changes in activities are linked to events. Network: the personal network describes the relationships of the respondent, with whom they share spaces, ideas, decisions, experiences etc. The network is not fixed, but evolves over time. These are now examined in more detail: 3.5.1 Background/Personal History Background and personal history approach looks for the attitudes, experiences, knowledge and motivations of the respondents: Life themes, Motivations, values, attitudes that are broadly continuous during our lives, or through long periods. They include certain ‘psychological’ factors related to ‘innovativeness’, enterpreneurialism, self-centredness etc. outlook on life, attitude towards relationships and community, priorities. At any one time certain themes may be more apparent or easily expressed than at others. They can also develop over time as a result of major events and experiences (e.g. (Douglas and Isherwood, 1979, 1996; Douglas, 1996) and work on lifestyles (Chaney, 1996)). It is not obviously not possible to look at why these exist in detail: where the line between ‘genetic’, early life shaping, and later life changes is, and how we can change ourselves. Past life projects, Past life events: Chapter 3: Methodology and Design The past experiences and events that shape attitudes, knowledge, social network, Knowledge, values, priorities and attitudes: The attitudes and knowledge that are carried forward at each stage of life to the next. Routines, repertoires, habits, beliefs: There is nothing deterministic about the influence of our past on our present, new life projects can draw on this knowledge and experience, but can also be attempts to overcome, change or retreat from aspects of earlier life projects. At the level of technology, media, information and communications there are: ß ß ß ß ß ß Experience of using and seeing technology, personal and vicarious Education in ICT Interest in innovation, new products and services Interest in information about the world Attitudes towards technically mediated or interactive activities. Particular experiences, personal habits and routines, myths and beliefs about ICTs, 3.5.2 Network The personal network is those people we have relationships with in our daily life. It ranges from close and intimate relationships of family friends, through colleagues in ‘public life’ to casual, weak relationships, acquaintances etc. These relationships can be voluntary or obligatory, friendly or hostile, or anywhere in between. Networks associated with life projects e.g. family, work colleagues, friends from other activities Knowledge and resources associated with networks: The network brings with it knowledge and resources, obligations, division of responsibility and resources). Shared myths of social groups in the networks, History of relationships, shared experiences, knowledge of and about those in the network. Symbols with meaning exclusive or special to the network. Cross over of networks. Different networks in our lives can be kept separate or overlap. People have different sorts of networks – strong, close, highly connected, weak and dispersed, radial – an individual is part of several not overlapping networks. Self-perception within network, Relates to our own perception of our place within a network – our status, value, contribution etc. Chapter 3: Methodology and Design Functional and symbolic roles in networks: Responsibilities, status, influence, specialisation, demands. This includes what we do in the network, and how we are respected – the moral and the ‘economic’ roles and the stereotypes and images of others in the networks. At the level of ICTs there are: ß ß ß ß ß People in network who use new technology Those who are trusted and accessible for information and advice Those who are considered examples, opinion leaders Status of technology knowledge and use in a relationship Use of technology in mediating relationships 3.5.3 Activities These are the things we do – they are not always rationally explained by goals, and often emerge from compromises and restrictions, as much as from voluntary choice. Activities include routine ‘everyday’ activities. They include maintain and developing relationships, motivation and goals, actions, consumption, creation and production, communication, and learning. Current life projects The activities that make up and support our life projects i.e. Work status, family status, leisure interests. These life projects are linked closely to life stage. These include all the things we do as part of jobs, studying, maintaining our relationships, managing our home, being a citizen, and a consumer. Childhood Adolescence Leaving home Student Early unemployment 20s Early Family Delayed Single Delayed Family Maturity in work Older children Motherhood Children leaving home Divorce Second Family ‘Empty Nest II’ Early retirement Young elderly Old Elderly Table 2 Possible Life stages Current Goals and motivations: (Why, what) These are specific to life projects and to more general life themes, and are the reasons why we undertake (most of) our activities. Chapter 3: Methodology and Design Priorities and pressures: Limits of time, space, efficiencies sought – we prioritise activities according to pressures and restrictions, often trading off between different demands, projects and motivations. Interactions: Many of our activities are related to our interactions with others: our network Crossover between life projects: Management of boundaries: we have activities aimed at maintaining boundaries between different areas of life, or trying to bridge them. Knowledge associated with activities: Tacit and explicit knowledge related to activities. Myths associated with the activities and the institutions. Knowledge needed to perform activities: At the level of ICTs: ß ß ß ß ß ß ß ß Activities using ICTs Activities where ICTs currently in common use Activities where use of ICTs are currently being innovated Communication circles and patterns Information work – processing information, finding information Education Activities were there is pressure for efficiency improvements Time hungry activities 3.5.4 Events Events are particular sorts of activities that take a short time to achieve and stand out as remarkable against normal activities. They normally involve a change in regular or routine activities and have a significant effect, but can themselves be cyclical or regular as well as unique. Appropriation and domestication process events are very important as they often mark important stages in personalisation, in changing attitudes, in making rules, learning and in changing relationships. Events picked up on in the interviews were those that occurred before or during the period of study. Since this was done by self reporting, only the events that they found significant to the questions (which were varied) were reported. However the questioning was designed to reveal a range of events. Chapter 3: Methodology and Design One class of events I call ‘life events’. I group life events into two categories, major, those that have involve upheaval, and minor, things that may not involve much change, but can be the opportunity or cause of change. Of course there is cross-over, and with hindsight a minor event could be the cause of major change (a new friendship that ends in marriage, or a new interest that leads to a career or major leisure activity). Major life events are events that involve considerable material, relationship and symbolic upheaval. They include marriage, divorce, changing job, major injury, moving house, starting and finishing education, redundancy, entering relationship. How these effect different people is of course a subject for other research, but for my purposes, I see them as important trigger events, and the research shows they can have some considerable effect both in the material acquisition of ICTs. Minor events include minor illness, holidays, buying large items, promotion, making new friends, new activities. Life events: Significant events in life projects – often changing points between one project and a new one. Annual events: Regular practical and symbolic events that are marked by activities of the individual or shared in their group, organisation. Often mark cycles of life, and can be connected to particular life projects. Some may be linked to a subculture, others drawn from more universal culture (public holidays, festivals) Network events: Events that involve the network, these particularly relate to forging or changing relationships. Boundary events: The boundary event initially marks the change from one regime to another, but can also be an event that confirms the boundary when it is challenged. For example, boundaries in relationships, domains in life, the start and end of life projects, the making of rules. Often they are symbolic activities marking other changes (e.g. beating the bounds, initiation rites, and special anniversaries). I also include events that become important in defining boundaries, or for breaking them down: e.g. getting a computer that enables work to be done at home, a decision not to get a computer to keep home and work separate, a family decision to limit TV viewing for children. Appropriation events: Chapter 3: Methodology and Design Related to technology events – but particularly to do with the adoption of new innovations, and important events in the appropriation and integration of them. Technology events: Remarkable events with the use and adoption of technology, maybe a number of small events that are linked together in the mind of the respondent. One of the problems of one-off interviews is to try and understand how people change their minds, and when. One model would be to assume that there are specific events or experiences during which people either gain information, or have to make decisions and analyse and take evaluate that information or knowledge according to their values, circumstances, goals, relationships and resources. However, under this model how ‘large’ or explicit are these events. For some people there may be definite times when decisions or knowledge and attitude formation, affirmation or change occurred. For others there may be a slow accumulation of knowledge, through minor events, or for example, constant use of a technology. Any event may also only be a marker or a crisis point in some underlying situation, something that is the cummulation of chronic problems, or a trigger that tips the balance in favour of adoption. Equally there may be a decision against adoption. A vaguely neutral or negative position may be crystallised by a particular event. Sometimes it is an event from outside (e.g. the arrival of a bill), or an individual deciding that enough is enough. 3.5.5 BEAN and models of consumption and Domestication The analysis was helped by linking the BEAN framework to two other analytic frameworks, the domestication model and the consumption model of Holt (1995). By working with these I was able to derive grid indicating a range of issues to look for in relation to how people used and interpreted ICTs both in use and in the process of domestication. Again, these were used as a guide in the analysis of the data, rather than as boxes to be filled in from to illustrate every possible combination. Chapter 3: Methodology and Design Activities Experience mediated by work, domestic, leisure, social activities Network Experience in context of other people – their influence. Events Context or trigger for adoption shapes experience Personal History Attitudes built over time and experience Integration Integration of ICTs through everyday activities. Meanings through using/doing Integration in a social space (moral economy) Meanings through sharing.? Appropriation at a time of change. Integration work time learning Classification Classification against other specialities in institutions Others to classify oneself with and against in relation to ICTs Play Activities that are shared around ICT use, maintenance, purchase etc The people with whom innovations, adoption, use are shared. Developing relationships around ICTs Bring into contact with new people, obliged to reconsider identity Shared events Personal capacity to appropriate and personalise ICTs and innovations developed through experience (scripts, creativity) Attitudes to others v.v. ICTs developed over time and experiences Experience (Subjective) Table 3 The BEAN approach and. Holt’s consumption model Past experiences of using and adopting innovations and ICTs Chapter 3: Methodology and Design Activities Appropriation Objectification Network Events Personal History Appropriation imposed from outside, or seen as fitting activities of household – from work to media use. Activities enable appropriation (resources, money, knowledge) Object brought into the home and placed relevant to activities intended for: work, play, individual or group use. Discussion, debate within household, and with, networks outside – enrolling expertise, and resources Event for whole household – e.g. moving, or for individual e.g. new job, school. Or regular event, e.g. Christmas. Media event Past experiences of ICTs in the home, and the experiences of individuals appropriating from outside Debate over where it should be placed, in what context, how it can be moved. Who is in control; Who is expert set. Discussions of new acquisition Routines of sharing, Emerging rules of use, disputes over use, sharing, discussion integrated into routines, everyday life. Changing relationships of control, expertise. Tool to challenge or re-enforce. Bringing knowledge, attitudes from outside network in, developing knowledge that is translated out again. Attitudes of those outside. Changing boundaries. Others come into to use†¦ Conflict over changing boundaries The installation event, ceremony, the gift giving event, Previous experience with ICTs of different sorts, Breaking points, rule making points, particular events demanding use, decisions to restrict, change use, upgrade, Attitudes to others v.v. ICTs developed over time and experiences. Preexisting routines how they fit new acquisition, preexisting hierarchies Events: use of ICT for/by people from outside. Particular discussions outside home, experiences outside that are brought in, real or electronic. Willingness to share home experience with outside, pre-existing relationships with outside. Incorporation Integration into the activities in the home, routines of space and time – changes in activities Changing existing routines and activities (e.g. displacement, replacement of activities) Conversion Changing boundary of activities. Use of ICT at home that change outside activities (e.g. work routines) bring activities into the home – e.g. socialising in home, electronic or ‘real’. Reinforcement of boundary. Table 4 The BEAN approach and the domestication model 3.6 Preparative Work and Reflections on the Research Process In preparing the research, and developing an understanding of the process I would be investigating in others, I reflected on my own experience and everyday life, using a number of the tools from the literature and those I was developing myself. As I Chapter 3: Methodology and Design developed the research from the original rather different conception, and noticed a number of issues that would subsequently become important. These tools included keeping a diary of my own social network and contacts, and a diary of my own adoption of the mobile telephone, in the context of the issues raised by the BEAN, Domestication and Consumption models, recording my own subjective reactions and thoughts and learning, the practical aspects of learning and using a mobile phone, particular events, and the reactions of other others over a period of two years (These are given in the Appendix). This gave considerable insights into a personal technology that created ambivalence and crossed over into all domains of life, and into the way I could engage with those I was interviewing, and the sort of issues I would have to investigate. Finally, in parallel to the formal research, I was continually watching the way I saw people using and talking about new ICTs, and asking for stories, which were usually forthcoming in response to finding out what I was investigating. These stories reinforced what I was finding in the interviews, and in many ways pushed the direction of the research. One aspect was constant trade in ICTs between people, gifts, sharing etc. Second was the importance of individuals who were enthusiasts and earlier adopters in their social networks, who provided resources, help and encouragement for others. This was true for groups of experienced users, who needed someone to keep them updated on new technology, and for novices who needed a first step on the ladder. Third were the constant problems that were encountered, and the stress that went along with the benefits of use. A number of events also prompted and encouraged my research. One of these was a major trial in the US of an English au pair accused of murdering a child in her care. At the time of the judgement the judge chose to put the verdict on the Internet. He did this not out because the Justice Department had instigated it as a policy, but because his son had persuaded him it was an good thing to do. This was a very public demonstration of the cross-over of influence between home and work in the adoption of the Internet. Chapter 3: Methodology and Design 1 Interpretative or ‘qualitative’ research, developed in the 20th century based on the ethnographic research of the Chicago school, especially George Herbert Mead. Herbert Blumer, who developed the ideas of Symbolic Interactionalism based on the work Mead suggests â€Å"The task of scientific study is to lift the veils that cover the area of group life that one proposes to study† (Blumer, 1969)p.39. Interpretative research stresses the importance of the individual and intersubjective interpretation in understanding social processes, but also in the actual practice of social science – there is the’ double hermeneutic’ (Giddens 1976) of the researcher interacting and interpreting Mead (1934) in (Prus, 1996)) the social situation that is being studied. The ethnographic method calls for the researcher to put themselves in the shoes of the other person (Berger and Luckmann, 1966), to share the reality of the ‘life-world’ of the other. Al though a theoretical basis is important, the researcher should use ‘inspection’ with a great deal of flexibility to investigate presumptions. The social situation should be approached from different angles and be imaginative, free, flexible, creative. Interpretative research stresses the importance of the individual and intersubjective interpretation in understanding social processes, but also in the actual practice of social science – there is the’ double hermeneutic’ (Giddens 1976) of the researcher interacting and interpreting (Mead (1934) in (Prus, 1996)) the social situation that is being studied. However, what ever the lengths a researcher may go to take the other’s stand point they are inevitably going to interpret the social situation according to a formal and informal logic that they bring to the research process. What a researcher should do therefore is to try and make explicit both to themselves, and to their readers is not only the theoretically imposed interpretative window or frame, but the emotional, personal and contingent influences on their interactions with the those whose liv es that are studying and on the interpretative process. 2 Desjeux et al. (Desjeux, Taponier et al., 1997) suggest four main dimension of investigation of the everyday to investigate the link between the social and the technical : Delegation of responsibility, to machines, to other people in the social network, and to commercial providers; Routines; Planning of activities; Improvisation. 3 Shopping is an area where there is considerable promise for new technology for home shopping, information gathering etc. There are very different types of use of technology in different retail outlets and for different goods, and different goods lend to mail order etc. Mail order is also an established business used by may people, from books and CDs, to clothes, consumer electronics, white goods, almost anything. The mail order market serves different groups. Catalogues that sell a wide range of goods are generally providing a planned credit service for low income purchasers. Other products such as books and music are sold though clubs and mail order because overheads are lower, and they service a regular purchasing habit. They can also provide a greater choice, and operate on lower overheads than high street retailers. There are specialist mail order services for products that are not normally available except in specialist shops, and mail order companies can offer better prices based on lower overheads and economies of scale from a country wide or global market. There are also more and more single range or brand name mail order services from high street retailers and others, for whom mail order is a form of direct marketing. They run services as a complement to high street operations. Mail order and use of direct marketing information resources has been a big area of development in multimedia around mass market e-commerce